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Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 



MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 



UNITED STATES 

EDITED BY 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 
Professor of Philosophy and Education in Columbia University, New York 



9 

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

AND 

HYGIENE 

BY 

GILBERT B. MORRISON, 
Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri 



This Monographs contributed to the United states Educational Exhibit by the 

State of New York 



■ 



Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 

Director 
HOWARD J. ROGERS, Albany, N. Y. 



MONOGRAPHS 



EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 

edited by 
NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 

Professor of Philosophy and Education in Colujnbia University, New York 



EDUCATIONAL ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION — 

Andrew Sloan Draper, President of the University of Illinois, Cham- 
paign, Illinois 
KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION — Susan E. Blow, Cazenovia, New 

York 
ELEMENTARY EDUCATION — William T. Harris, United States 

Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. 
SECONDARY EDUCATION — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Professor 

of Education in the University of California, Berkeley, California 
THE AMERICAN COLLEGE — Andrew Fleming West, Professor of 

Latin in Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 
THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY— Edward Delavan Perry, Jay 

Professor of Greek in Columbia University, New York 
EDUCATION OF WOMEN — M. Carey Thomas, President of Bryn 

Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania 
TRAINING OF TEACHERS — B. A. Hinsdale, Professor of the Science 

and Art of Teaching in the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 

Michigan 
SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE — Gilbert B. Morrison, 

Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri 
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION — James Russell Parsons, Director of 

the College and High School Departments, University of the State of 

New York, Albany, New York 
SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION — 

T. C. Mendenhall, President of the Technological Institute, Worces- 
ter, Massachusetts 
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION — Charles W. Dabney, President 

of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION — Edmund J. James, Professor of Public 

Adtninistration in the University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 

ART AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION — Isaac Edwards Clarke, 
Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 

EDUCATION OF DEFECTIVES— Edward Ellis Allen , Principal of 
the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, Over- 
brook, Pennsylvania 

SUMMER SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITY EXTENSION — Herbert B. 
Adams, Professor of American and Institutional History in the Johns 
Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryla7id 

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS —James McKeen 
Cattell, Professor of Psychology in Columbia University, New York 

EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO — Booker T. Washington, Principal 
of the Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Alabama 

EDUCATION OF THE INDIAN— William N. Hailmann, Superin- 
tendent of Schools, Dayton, Ohio 



Department of Education 

FOR THE 

United States Commission to the Paris Exposition of 1900 



MONOGRAPHS ON EDUCATION 



UNITKD STATES 

EDITED by 

NICHOLAS MURRAY BUTLER 

Professor of Philosophy and Edttcation in Columbia University, New York 



9 

SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

AND 

HYGIENE 

BY 

GILBERT B. MORRISON, 

11 

Principal of the Manual Training High School, Kansas City, Missouri 



This Monographs contributed to the United States Educational Exhibit by the 

State of New York 






Copyright by 
J. B. LYON COMPANY 



SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 



The school house is an infallible index of the educational 
status of the community in which it is located. It stands at 
once a monument and a history of the mistakes or successes, 
the ignorance or wisdom, the poverty or opulence, the par- 
simony or generosity of the people who have erected and 
maintained it. From the forbidding shanty on the country 
cross roads in the backwoods to the palatial edifice in the 
most enlightened city, this building tells a story in letters so 
plain and so unmistakable that " he who runs may read." 
The school house teaches not alone a lesson in architecture, 
but lessons in sanitation, in engineering, in sesthetics, and in 
pedagogics. The building from the school-room furnishings 
and devices for teaching to the finishing touches of the 
exterior, is a composite resultant of the work of teacher, 
superintendent, school director, engineer, and architect. 

The growth of the American school house is commensu- 
rate with the growth of American education. From the four 
bare walls where the three R's were formerly taught to the 
modern laboratory or art room in which are combined the 
appliances for the best teaching and for the expression of 
the best taste, these material evidences epitomize the educa- 
tional situation in our country. The consideration of school 
house building, therefore, becomes a question of the highest 
importance. 

The necessary features to be secured in building a school 
house named in the order of their relative importance are, 
i. Shelter; 2. Adequate space; 3. Warmth; 4. Ventila- 
tion; 5. Light; 6. Interior furnishings and appliances; 
7. Beauty. 

The ends to be attained in all of these features are essen- 
tially the same for all types of buildings from the one-room 



4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 1 2 

country school house to the most expensive structure built 
in the city for high school or college purposes. The appli- 
cation of the principles involved in securing these ends in 
buildings of every variety of cost and function requires a 
vast diversity of treatment. 

In all of the above-named features of a building, the three 
ends to be sought are hygienic, economic, and mechanical. 
In all cases alike, it is mechanical skill and ingenuity work- 
ing with the means at their command to reach the best 
hygienic results. The features requiring the greatest skill 
are warming and ventilating, and the general architectural 
effect given to the building in its construction and in its 
location. 

In his book on " The Warming and Ventilation of School 
Buildings," the writer has treated somewhat in detail the 
principles underlying the subjects of the present essay, and 
it is his object here to outline in the briefest manner to what 
extent these principles have been put into practice in the 
school houses of the United States. In order to do this, he 
has thought best to select some of our best buildings as 
examples representative of the various types, pointing out 
their merits and calling attention to their defects, and sug- 
gesting where improvements could be made. To fully treat 
in a thorough and scientific manner the principles involved 
in building a school house is beyond the scope of this article. 
The object here is simply to embody into the discussion of a 
few types the results of the best theory as exemplified in the 
best practice. 

THE COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE 

The majority of the children of the United States go to 
school in the country. The country school house, therefore, 
deserves its share of attention. On account of economic 
conditions, the instruction must be carried on in a single 
room of sufficient size to accommodate the children. In 
many of the states the unsanitary conditions usually prevail- 
ing in rural districts have been partially overcome by proper 
oversight on the part of intelligent supervisors. 



413] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 5 

As economy is the chief end to be considered in most rural 
districts, a plan by Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd (Plate 
I) is selected as meeting a sufficient number of the neces- 
sary requirements to form an intelligent basis of treatment. 

While this house can be built for about $600, it presents 
a neat and attractive appearance. Its exterior reveals the 
touch of the architect's hand, and the educational influence 
of such a building when located on a well-selected site can 
hardly be overestimated. 

The building is 24x32 ft, outside measurement, and com- 
prises a school room, a fuel room, a wardrobe for boys, a 
wardrobe for girls and a porch ; it will furnish shelter for 
thirty pupils in single seats, or thirty-six pupils in double 
seats. The single seat should always be provided where 
the rigor of economy does not positively forbid it. The 
single seat is an American characteristic, and its moral influ- 
ence on the pupils in the freedom it gives them from too 
close proximity, as well as its assistance to the teacher in 
maintaining order, commends it to universal use. 

There remains very little to be said about the proper seat 
to be provided in furnishing a school room. The seats now 
on'the market and furnished by all dealers in school furni- 
ture are, in the main, models of convenience, comfort and 
finish. It certainly stands to the credit of this country for 
having invented and brought into almost universal use the 
best seat which any country has produced. These seats are 
graded in size to suit the age of the pupils. A room improp- 
erly seated in the United States is at the present time only 
chargeable to the grossest ignorance, indifference or neglect. 

The heating is accomplished by means of a stove placed 
in one corner of the school room. The time-honored prac- 
tice of placing the stove in the center of the room has given 
way to a better knowledge of the principles of heating and 
ventilating. The function of the stove, when the demands 
of economy require its use, is the heating of the room by 
convection, not by radiation. While the radiated heat from 
the sun or from an open fire is most cordial and beneficial, 



6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 1 4 

the reverse is true of radiated heat from a stove. The air 
in a room can be heated almost as quickly by a stove placed 
in one corner as in the center and by enclosing it in a jacket 
of sheet metal the parching radiation is intercepted. In the 
present case, the stove serves the purpose both of warming 
and of ventilation. 

The diminished specific weight of air when its tempera- 
ture is raised and its tendency therefore to rise lessened 
furnishes the basis for all methods of so-called natural or 
gravital ventilation. 

In this building, the chimney is divided into two parts, 
one for smoke and the other for a foul air vent. A fresh air 
duct leading from the outside of the building to an opening 
directly under the stove supplies the fresh air. As the air 
in the room becomes heated, it has a tendency by its specific 
lightness to rise through the foul air vent in the chimney, its 
place being constantly supplied by the cold fresh air as it 
flows through the fresh air duct becoming heated as it passes 
up between the stove and the zinc jacket enclosing it. 

The foul air duct would become still more efficient if the 
chimney instead of being partitioned had simply contained 
the stove pipe extended to the top. A heavy galvanized 
iron pipe should be erected and securely fastened by stays 
anchored to the brickwork when the chimney is built. 

The chimney for a single room should have an interior 
cross sectional area of at least five square feet, and the pipe 
should be placed in the center of it. By this means the 
whole chimney not occupied by the pipe becomes a vent or 
aspirating chimney in which an upward current is main- 
tained by the heat from the pipe. The foul air reaches this 
vent through a duct leading from a box beneath the teacher's 
platform. The part of the floor under the platform is 
lowered to form the under side of the box while the top of 
the platform forms the upper side. The air finds access to 
this foul air box through openings or registers placed in the 
riser of the platform. 

The total area of these registers, and also the cross sec- 



415] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 7 

tional area of the fresh air duct should be about equal to 
that of the chimney. A throttle damper should be placed 
in the fresh air duct so that the air may be regulated in 
severe cold weather or retained in the room during the night 
to prevent its becoming too cold. The exit registers should 
also be closed at night. 

In order that the air may not be overheated as it passes 
the stove, and thus rendered unfit for breathing, the stove 
should be large, so that the increased area of heating surface 
may obviate the necessity of extreme overheating. Besides, 
the danger from overheating the air by highly heated sur- 
faces, it should be remembered that iron when raised to a 
red heat becomes pervious to the poisonous gases of com- 
bustion. One of the products of coal combustion is carbon 
monoxide (CO), a very poisonous gas, which, if allowed to 
escape, will contaminate the air. 

The method of conveying the foul air into the aspirating 
chimney shown in Mr. Appleyard's plan has been modified 
in various ways in different localities. In a plan drawn by 
Edbrook & Burnham, architects, Chicago, used in some of 
the school houses in Wisconsin and Illinois ; and in a simi- 
lar plan drawn by Hackney & Smith, architects, Kansas 
City, Mo., and used in some of the school houses in Mis- 
souri, the exit registers are multiplied and placed in the 
floor near the base board at intervals around the room. The 
foul air gathering " box " thus becomes the entire space 
between the floor and the ground below, the opening into 
the chimney being below the floor, as in the former case. A 
sanitary objection to this arises in the fact that in warm 
weather, when the inside is cooler than the outside air, the 
draft is liable to be reversed and the " ground air " under 
the house drawn up into the school room. 

In another modification, shown in plans drawn by John 
R. Church, Rochester, N. Y., the numerous exit registers 
are placed in the base boards and open into ducts rising in 
the walls to the attic, where they converge and unite in an 
opening into the aspirating chimney. A mechanical objec- 



8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 1 6 

tion to this arises in the interference with the free movement 
of the air imposed by the large amount of friction in numer- 
ous small ducts. 

There is really nothing gained by multiplying details in 
conveying air from a room. The simplest is always the best 
way. An ordinary wing register placed in the vent flue just 
above the floor is probably a better means of conveying the 
foul air than any of the processes just mentioned. It is 
simple, economical, direct and frictionless. 

It should be remembered that the position of exit regis- 
ters near the floor is here recommended, not because this is 
the ideal position for them, but because it is necessary in a 
room heated by a stove to trap the air in the upper part of 
the room, and to keep it from escaping before it has been 
utilized. This position of exit registers is also necessary 
with all systems of heating which have heretofore been in 
use in school-house building, but unnecessary in a stage of 
pneumatic engineering which we are approaching, reference 
to which is made on a subsequent page. 

A still better means for removing the foul air is the open 
fireplace. This is used in a few districts in some of the 
northern states. It is to be regretted that the virtues of the 
open fireplace in school buildings have not been more widely 
recognized. Whether considered from a hygienic, economic 
or mechanical standpoint, this old-fashioned but neglected 
device is much to be commended. When it was discovered 
that the open fire does not furnish an adequate means of 
warming in severely cold weather, it gradually gave way to 
more effective modern devices ; its value as a means of ven- 
tilation, however, was not sufficiently appreciated to save its 
almost total abandonment. When combined with a stove 
so as to receive into it the smokepipe, the open fireplace 
chimney is not expensive. In moderate weather when little 
heat is required, the open fire would meet the demands of 
warming and fulfill all the requirements of perfect ventilation. 

The strong, upward draft through an open fireplace chim- 
ney when the outside is cooler than the inside air, even 



417] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 9 

without fire in the grate, is a matter of common observation. 
Every country school house should have an open fireplace. 
A small fire kept burning would ventilate the room, supple- 
ment the heat of the stove, and produce by its cheerful, 
radiating effect a wholesome influence on the pupils. 

As the radiation from an open fire does not warm the air 
except secondarily from the solid surfaces of objects inter- 
cepting the rays, the open fire cannot be employed for warm- 
ing except in mild weather ; but its other advantages here 
mentioned make it a most profitable investment. 

The lighting of the House shown in Plate I, while ample 
in its aggregate, has the defect common to most school- 
houses — that of light on two sides. A school room designed 
for academic purposes should be lighted on one side only. 
The length of the room should exceed its width by a ratio 
of about 3 to 2. While this ratio may vary within reason- 
able limits, the width should not be greater than twice the 
clear height. The windows on one of the longer sides 
should extend to the top of the room, should be well shaded, 
and as numerous as architectural requirements will admit. 

The hygienic necessity of protecting the eyes of the pupils 
by admitting the light at the left or the back has been uni- 
versally recognized, but a like consideration for the rights of 
the teacher has been generally neglected. 

In a room lighted on two adjacent sides, either the teacher 
or the pupils must face the light, and the teacher by com- 
mon consent has been made the victim. This, more than 
all other causes combined, is hastening the premature weak- 
ness of the eyes of our teachers. In country school houses, 
the light is commonly admitted on opposite sides, but this 
is objectionable on account of the disagreeable and injurious 
effects of cross lighting. The necessity of lighting on o'ne 
side only is recognized in common practice in Germany, 
but it has been generally ignored in the United States of 
America. The writer is aware that thoughtful objections 
have been urged in this country against limiting windows to 
one side of class rooms — that the practice in Germany arose 



IO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 1 8 

from the possibility there of admitting light from the north 
only, and that when admitted from the south, east or west, 
the direct rays will dazzle the eyes of the pupils by falling 
directly upon them and upon their work. 

While these objections have some weight, they will not 
stand when the facts are carefully considered. If there is 
an objection to windows on a side which admits direct sun- 
light on certain hours of the day, it is not plain how that objec- 
tion could be removed by placing windows on two such sides. 

When windows are distributed on two sides of a nearly 
square room, as is the case in the conventional corner room 
in most buildings of more than one room, neither side 
alone is sufficient to light the room when curtains are drawn 
on the other side. There are two reasons for this : First, the 
window area is insufficient, and second, the distance across 
the room of the common square form or lengthwise in rec- 
tangular form is greater than the established standard for 
the height of windows. 

The objection to rectangular rooms lighted exclusively by 
numerous windows on one of the longer sides may be — even 
though this side be on the south — entirely removed by the 
proper use of curtains. The curtains for such a room 
should be of white muslin of light weight mounted on 
spring rollers. A room 24x32 ft. with four large, full 
height windows in one of its longer sides, facing south, will, 
with such curtains drawn clear down, be fully lighted, when 
the sun is shining, with a soft, subdued, well-diffused and 
ample light. This has been fully demonstrated by the writer 
who used such a curtain for several years in a large physics 
demonstration room lighted on the south only by two very 
large windows instead of the four, five, or even six which it 
is easy to obtain in a building planned on hygienic principles. 

The common practice of admitting light at the back of 
the pupils and into the face of the teacher cannot be too 
strongly condemned. It is wholly unnecessary, false in 
theory, and pernicious in practice, as the ruined eyesight of 
thousands of teachers can attest. 



419] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE II 

The lighting on one side only is accomplished in the 
country school house shown in Plate II, drawn by C. Powell 
Karr, architect, New York city. The estimated cost of this 
house is $1,200, and it may well stand as a model of build- 
ings of this class. The school room is well proportioned, 
24x33 ft., and with its seven windows on one side and a 
14 ft. stud, it is amply supplied with direct and thoroughly 
diffused light. 

The stove with its air jacket is properly located in one 
corner. The chimney is large and contains a properly placed 
smoke pipe in the center. However, had the lower part of 
this chimney been converted into an open fireplace, the 
economic and hygienic ends would be still better served. A 
coal room and a teacher's room add to the convenience and 
symmetry of the building. 

A separate entrance with lobby, cloak room and hall is 
provided for the boys and girls — a matter of no small 
importance in a country school. 

The back doors opening out of the halls make a proper 
separation between the girls' and boys' walks to the out- 
houses. These walks, let it be here noted, should always be 
covered and the sides shielded by lattice work. 

One improvement is here suggested in the arrangement 
of the cloak and coat rooms. In order to secure light and 
ventilation, they should be changed from the inner to the 
outer wall of the halls where a window could be added to 
furnish the necessary light. While window ventilation is 
not generally recommended, its objection is less in a cloak 
room than elsewhere. 

This house is a model of neatness and, all essential points 
considered, may stand as a type of the best of its class. 

THE TWO-ROOM BUILDING 

In small hamlets where the school population necessitates 
adding another room, new problems present themselves. 
As the hygienic requirements are the same for all rooms, 
these problems are chiefly mechanical. 



12 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [420 

A two-room building answering all economic and hygienic 
requirements could not be found, but the plan shown in 
Plate III, drawn by Warren R. Briggs, architect, Bridge- 
port, Conn., is a fair representation of the best that has been 
accomplished. 

This building has two rooms, two hat and coat rooms, and a 
basement. It is estimated to cost $2,000. The basement is 
built of stone, and the upper part is frame. The architectural 
treatment gives the house a neat and attractive appearance. 

As we leave the one-room building and pass to those hav- 
ing two or more, economy as well as convenience suggests 
the centralization of the heating and ventilating apparatus. 
The stove is enlarged, placed in the basement, and becomes 
a " furnace." The cold air duct conveying the air to the 
source of heat between the furnace and enclosing jacket is 
substantially the same as for the one supplying the stove in 
the single room, except that it has double the cross-sectional 
area. The jacket instead of being open at the top is closed 
with branch pipes leading to the rooms. 

In Mr. Briggs' plan, the chimney and air ducts are situ- 
ated centrally as they properly should be. The warm air is 
admitted near the top of the rooms through the inlet ducts 
and is supposed to go out at the outlets near the floor. 
This it will do only when there is a considerable difference 
between the inside and outside temperature, there being no 
provision made to heat these outlet ducts. By making open 
.fireplaces of these ducts, they would be converted into 
effective aspirating chimneys and would also serve for warm- 
ing the rooms in mild weather. 

In the method of heating here shown, we see in embryo 
the "hot air" or "indirect" system which seems to be the 
best means of warming small buildings with comparatively 
few rooms, in which a steam or hot water plant cannot be 
afforded, and where the destination of the hot air is not far 
from the furnace. The furnace, however, in small buildings 
should be large that the necessity of overheating may be 
obviated. 



42 1] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 3 

The fireplace before suggested should be heated only in 
mild weather. In very cold weather it causes unnecessary 
waste of air as well as of fuel. In fact, in extremely low 
temperatures, ventilation generally takes care of itself unless 
the room is very close. This is of course due to the con- 
siderable difference in atmospheric pressure between the 
inside and outside walls of the room. 

The rooms in the building under consideration are well 
proportioned — 25x35 ft. — and are well conditioned for 
exclusive lighting on the longer sides. This would provide 
a place for the teacher's platform, in the room shown on the 
left side of the plan, at the end opposite the entrance, throw- 
ing the light at the left of the pupils. The present position 
of the platform sacrifices valuable space and makes the 
teacher face the broadside light while seeing the faces of his 
pupils in shadow. The changes required by these sugges- 
tions while of the greatest importance are mechanically 
insignificant and simple. 

Excellent as is the present plan when generally con- 
sidered, it is too expensive for the ordinary hamlet district 
which would have to forego the luxury of a basement. To 
meet the economic conditions in such cases, the writer sug- 
gests a plan shown in Plate IV. 

This plan gives well-lighted wardrobes with a convenient 
arrangement of doors. 

The heat is furnished by stoves placed in the corners of 
the rooms. The angular position of the chimney makes it 
serve well the purposes of both rooms. The position of 
fresh air and smoke pipes are shown by the dotted lines. 

The teacher's rooms, which are a convenience for many 
purposes, may be dispensed with where greater economy 
demands it. 

THE THREE-ROOM BUILDING 

With each addition to the number of rooms in a building, 
the mechanical difficulties incident to providing all the 
hygienic requirements increase. To supply plenty of pure, 
warm air to every room, to conform to the requirements of 



14 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [422 

lighting and seating, to provide a well-lighted and ventilated 
coat and cloak room adjacent to each school room, to have 
ample and well-lighted corriders, to plan with a view to 
beauty of design, and withal to keep within the bounds of 
economy, requires a profound knowledge of principles, prac- 
tical skill and sound judgment. 

As an objective basis for discussion, another building — 
Plate V — drawn by Mr. Briggs, has been selected. Although 
not ideal, this house possesses many excellent features. 

An examination of the plan reveals the same defect in 
lighting two of the rooms that was pointed out in the two- 
room building, — a defect which is easy to remedy by blind- 
ing the windows on one end and moving the teacher's plat- 
form. The only other defect noticeable in this plan is the 
use of the main hall for coat and cloak rooms. In the pres- 
ent case, however, this defect is not without compensating 
advantages. It gives freedom, room, and publicity in the 
putting away and the taking down of wraps, and it econo- 
mizes space. 

The objection which usually prevails against the hall as a 
place for wraps is the odor which is liable to come from the 
drying of wet outer garments. This objection, however, is 
partly answered in the present building by the position of 
the heating and ventilating chimneys, which secures good 
ventilation for the hall, and thus prevents any currents of air 
from the hall into the school rooms. 

The chief merit of this building is its centrally located, 
compact and ample heating and ventilating apparatus. The 
position, size, and quality of this breathing apparatus is as 
important in a building as are corresponding features in the 
lungs of an animal. The central location is economical and 
gives a proper balance to the distribution of air. The hot 
air pipes rising inside the large aspirating chimney produce 
an upward current which draws the air from the rooms con- 
nected with it through the registers. The cold air passes 
in through the fresh air duct in the basement, is heated by 
the furnace, and rises between the furnace and jacket to 



423] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 5 

the pipes leading up through the large chimney to the upper 
part of the rooms. The exit registers placed near the floor 
open into the chimney. 

The building has an artistic and stable appearance. Built 
of stone or brick, the estimated cost is $6,600. But a frame 
structure, providing the same conveniences, could probably 
be built for $5,000. 

It will be unnecessary to give details of plans for a four 
and six-room building. Duplicating the plans for two rooms 
will give a good plan for a four-room building ; and dupli- 
cating the plans for three rooms will give an equally good 
one for a building of six rooms. Staircases could easily 
be provided for by enlarging the halls, and this without sac- 
rificing any of the essential features. 

THE EIGHT-ROOM BUILDING 

In accordance with the established grading of primary and 
grammar schools in this country, a building of eight rooms 
— one for each grade — is typical of the complete unit for 
this class of school work, and is the prevailing type in the 
small cities and towns throughout the United States. For 
this and other reasons now about to be mentioned, a care- 
ful consideration of this building becomes highly important. 

The method for warming a building is to be determined 
largely by the number of rooms to be warmed and by the 
means at the command of the builders. The proposition 
to establish a steam plant for a one-room country school 
house, would be about as absurd as one to warm a seven- 
story building covering a whole block in a large city with 
hot air furnaces in the basement. Considering the velocity 
at which air moves through ducts, its rate of cooling and 
the friction which it encounters in reaching its destination, 
all methods of conveying air have their proper places and 
their limitations. 

In the growth of the typical school house from a one to a 
fifty-room building, the stove, the hot air furnace, the gravi- 
tal steam plant with its "direct" and "indirect" radiation, 



l6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [4 2 4 

and the forcing fan all have their appropriate places. To 
ask which of these means is the best is much like asking 
whether it is best for an animal to breathe by absorption, 
by spiracles, by gills or by lungs. It all depends upon the 
building or upon the animal. There is a time when the 
stove gives way to the furnace, the furnace to steam pipes 
alone, and steam pipes alone to steam pipes supplemented 
by mechanical power. 

It is in buildings of the capacity of the one under con- 
sideration that the battle between the dealers in hot air fur- 
naces and the steam fitters is usually waged, and the argu- 
ments commonly employed by both are as amusing to the 
scientist as they are distracting to the average school director. 

It may here be said to the credit of both factions that in 
buildings of this size either method will answer the pur- 
pose, but the writer wishes to give as his opinion that, in 
constructing an eight-room building, the time has come for 
the installation of a steam plant. 

In order to secure the proper ventilation, the radiation 
should be in the main " indirect ;" i. e., the steam pipes should 
take the place in the fresh air inlet duct of that formerly 
occupied by the furnace. Experience has proved that, in 
purely gravital systems, this should be supplemented with 
the direct radiation of a few radiators placed in the rooms 
under the windows. For a fuller discussion of the princi- 
ples underlying these statements, see " Warming and Ven- 
tilation of School Buildings," chapters XVII and XVIII. 

Another peculiarity which generally prevails in our eight- 
room buildings is that, situated as the rooms are in corners 
of the building, they are usually square and lighted on two 
adjacent sides. This error is ingeniously avoided in the 
fifth ward school building, Joliet, Ills., shown in Plates VI 
and VII. 

By blinding the windows on one side and by increasing 
their number on the other, all the rooms are properly lighted. 
By an equally ingenious and artistic architectural treatment, 
the external appearance is made strikingly attractive. The 



425] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 7 

halls are wide and well lighted, and a wardrobe having both 
school room and hall entrance is provided for each room. 

The heating of this building is with hot air indirect, 
supplemented by direct steam radiation. The writer is 
informed by the school authorities of Joliet that it is not 
wholly satisfactory in severe weather, and that in their newer 
buildings they use both direct and indirect steam radiation. 
In order to secure sufficient directness for the hot air as well 
as a sufficiently large heating surface, it was found necessary 
to multiply furnaces and to widely distribute them to differ- 
ent parts of the basement. A single boiler could accomplish 
the results easier and more economically by supply steam 
for indirect — supplemented by direct — radiation. 

The advantage of steam over hot air in such a building is 
seen in cold and windy weather when the impossibility for 
hot air to make its way against a strong pressure on the 
windward side has been so often and so fully demonstrated 
that argument is no longer necessary. Were the Joliet 
building heated and ventilated by a steam plant properly 
installed, the writer would not hesitate in classing it as a 
model of its class. 

Plates VIII and IX show floor plans, basement and sec- 
tional view of an eight-room primary and grammar school 
house which deserve careful study. 

This plan is the result of an attempt of William Atkinson, 
architect, to plan a school house possessing all the necessary 
architectural and hygenic features at a minimum cost — "to 
reduce the cost to its lowest terms." To do this, Mr. Atkin- 
son selects what is known as the "mill construction" which 
consists of exposed iron I beams and timbers ; and inside 
walls finished with faced brick instead of lath and plaster. . 

As to the economy of "mill construction," architects in 
general do not consider it less expensive than that ordinarily 
employed. The writer's observation of its use in a portion 
of the manual training high school of Kansas City, Mo., is 
that it costs slightly more ; however, this is excellent con- 
struction and is growing in favor as shown by many recently- 



1 8 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [426 

built houses in different parts of the country ; it is strong, 
and being exposed the work must be faithfully done ; it is 
especially recommended for laboratories and manual train- 
ing workshops; it is "slow combustion" and when properly 
constructed looks well. 

But it is not so much "mill construction" as other features 
which commend Mr. Atkinson's plan to careful considera- 
tion ; its shape in simple parallelogram, and the small space 
occupied by halls are certainly elements of economy. The 
absence of a central hall makes it possible to heat and ven- 
tilate the house by means of one large chimney in the center 
and could be made a support for I beams if "mill construc- 
tion" were used. 

The position of the two halls confines the light to one 
side of the school rooms which are 24 ft. in width and 32 ft. 
in length. The five large windows evenly spaced and the 
proportion of the rooms makes the lighting ideal. 

There are four well-lighted wardrobes on each floor, one 
for each room. Although these wardrobes are not in con- 
junction with the school rooms, they are near to them, and 
the inconvenience which their location would cause in dis- 
missing the pupils would be small. 

Another objection to the arrangement of the rooms is that 
all of the rooms cannot be reached from a common hallway, 
making it necessary to pass through certain rooms in reach- 
ing others. This is unconventional, but the objection is in 
reality insignificant when it is remembered that in a graded 
grammar school such passing is only occasional, and is chiefly 
confined to the movements of the principal in his visits to 
the different rooms ; he could, when necessary, pass around 
on the outside. 

We have now reached the proper place to consider the 
use of mechanical power as a means of ventilation. The 
necessity of this means in very large buildings is no longer 
a subject of debate, and is in use in all first class buildings 
in our large cities ; but it is generally supposed that to buy 
an engine and fans for ventilating an ordinary eight-room 



427] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 1 9 

building would be an expensive luxury. This is not only an 
error, but it may be safely said that the reverse is true — 
that it is expensive to do without engine and fans. 

It is now generally accepted that 2000 cubic feet of air at 
normal pressure is needed for each pupil per hour if the 
requirements of perfect ventilation are met ; but the mistake 
is commonly made that this amount is ever realized in sys- 
tems of gravity ventilation where the air is moved by heat- 
ing aspirating chimneys. It is not denied that this quantity 
of air per pupil can be moved by the gravity method ; only 
that it is not done in practice. 

The most careful estimates place the amount of fuel 
necessary for this purpose as about one-sixth in excess of 
that required to supply the heating. So that to ventilate a 
building properly by the gravity method more than doubles 
the cost of heating without ventilation. It is plain that the 
burning of such large quantities of coal in chimneys for the 
purpose of ventilation is expensive and — in view of a better 
way — wasteful. 

Without burdening the reader with deduction formulas, 
it may be reliably asserted that every pupil in school may 
be supplied for a whole school year with 2000 cubic feet of 
air per hour at a power cost of less than one cent per capita. 
As this statement will be reluctantly accepted by many who 
are unfamiliar with such matters, a few words of explanation 
will not be out of place. 

It should be remembered that in securing this result the 
exhaust steam is not wasted but is admitted directly into the 
radiators and utilized for heating the building. The engine 
simply converts enough of the steam as it passes through 
into mechanical power to run the fans. The drop in the 
temperature of the steam which this change causes is very 
small, so small indeed that it might almost be neglected, and 
it is this drop which supplies the entire expenditure for 
ventilation. 

In the complete combustion of a single pound of average 
bituminous coal, there is liberated 13000 heat units; multi- 



20 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [428 

plying this by the mechanical equivalent, 872, we get 
10036000 — the number of foot pounds of actual work of 
which one pound of coal is capable when the transformation 
takes place without loss ; and this is precisely the case when 
a fan is run by an engine and the exhaust steam used for 
heating the building. 

It will be interesting to note that this work, 10036000 
foot pounds, when divided by 33000, the horse power per 
minute, gives 304 plus as the number of minutes one pound 
of coal will supply a horse power of work. One horse 
power is the work necessary to ventilate an average class 
room. We see then that one average sized school room can 
by this means be amply ventilated for five hours with only 
one pound of coal. At $4 per ton, this would cost one-fifth 
of a cent ! 

To move air at the same rate by burning coal in a venti- 
lating chimney it would require for the same time an average 
of 100 pounds of coal; thus the cost of mechanical ventila- 
tion is only 1 per cent of that equally well done by gravity. 
To ventilate an eight-room building by mechanical means 
would require an eight horse-power engine and two three- 
foot fans. The cost of an installment would not exceed 

$35°- 

Twenty-one pounds per hour is the quantity of coal which 
careful estimates place as necessary to ventilate a school 
room containing 60 pupils. Now counting seven the 
number of fire months, 20 the number of days to the 
month, eight as the number of hours per day in which fire 
will be needed, $4 the price of a ton of coal, the cost of ven- 
tilating a building of eight rooms would be 

7x20x8x8x21x4 = $376.32. 
2000 

Any less expense would imply that the ventilation is imper- 
fect and short of that which would be supplied by engine- 
driven fans. Thus, a power plant would pay for itself in 
one year in the saving of coal alone. 

But there are other compensations incident to this system 



429] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2 1 

in the installation. It should be remembered that all ducts, 
both for fresh and for foul air, need to be only half the size 
of those for gravity ventilation; this is because of a corre- 
sponding difference in the velocity of the air in the two 
systems. 

Again, the indirect radiating surface is at least one-third 
less, due to the higher steam pressure which may be carried 
to supply the drop in temperature which takes place on 
radiator surfaces when strong currents are passed over 
them. 

Taking, then, the great daily saving in coal consumption, 
the trifling extra expense of first installation, and the cer- 
tainty of the action and efficiency of the mechanical method, 
what remains to be said ? Simply that in buildings of eight 
rooms and upwards, mechanical ventilation should take the 
place of gravital. Whether we consider the matter from an 
hygienic, economic or mechanical basis, this conclusion is 
inevitable — a conclusion which has been amply verified by 
the writer in the Kansas City manual training high school 
during the past two years (Sept., 1897, to May, 1899), an< ^ 
to which fuller reference is made in subsequent pages. 

THE LARGE CITY WARD AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 

As cities grow in population and as the price of ground 
increases until in extreme cases it becomes necessary to mass 
together 2000 to 3000 children under one roof, the problem 
of meeting all hygienic and mechanical conditions becomes 
serious and difficult. It is here that the factor of economy 
must in the main yield to necessity, and the enormous expen- 
diture of money is one of the inevitable means of solution. 

The only standpoints from which the discussion of econ- 
omy has any justification in these gigantic structures is in 
the question of height and in that of architectural treatment 
for aesthetic purposes. And even this is scarcely allowable 
in great cities where the class of construction is practically 
forced by the surroundings and where a certain measure of 
beauty is demanded by the artistic spirit prevailing in met- 



2 2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [43° 

ropolitan "air." Notwithstanding that the cost per school 
room decreases with the number of stories, it requires with 
the best management about $5,000 per room to construct a 
building five stories in height in the city of New York. 
This is five times as much as would be required to secure 
conditions equally hygienic in the country, where the absence 
of plumbing and mechanical ventilation is compensated for 
in the unlimited playgrounds and free country air. 

As to architectural effect, the writer believes that, consid- 
ering the educational value of attractive surroundings and 
the relatively small cost of securing them when artistic skill 
is exercised, a due regard should be paid to the appearance 
of our school buildings. 

When the architectural treatment is undertaken in a true 
artistic spirit — a spirit which makes art conform to utility 
instead of sacrificing it — the additional expense is well 
invested. It must, however, be confessed that there has 
been much useless expenditure in an attempt at meaningless 
ornamentation, resulting in a ridiculous exhibition of cheap 
filigree and hodge podge, devoid not only of the first ele- 
ments of beauty, but often sacrificing utility and convenience. 

The two extremes of expense in building a school house 
are found in the "factory" type, consisting simply of walls, 
windows and roof, without ornamentation of any kind ; and 
in the "hospital" type, which comprises not only all modern 
improvements in sanitary plumbing, heating and ventilation, 
but architectural effect as well. When properly done, a suf- 
ficient architectural treatment can be given to a building 
with a moderate additional cost. 

The following from Mr. Edmon M. Wheelwright, city 
architect, Boston, Mass., who has recently contributed to the 
u Brickbuilder" a most valuable series of articles on "The 
American school house," is so well said and so much to the 
point that the writer takes pleasure in quoting it : 

"In designing a school house, the architect should strive 
to produce not an English college building, a French 
chateau, or a 'Romanesque' library, but a school house. 



43 1] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 23 

The practical requirements of the problem demand in most 
cases symmetry of plan, and in all cases lighting of the 
school rooms by wide and high windows. It is requisite 
that these windows should not have transom bars, and that 
either a flat roof or one of low pitch should be used. A 
high, well-lighted basement is also a requisite of a school 
house. The important rooms in the basement need ample 
windows, and a stud of ten feet is none too high for the 
proper installation of the heating apparatus. These require- 
ments for the basement affect school house designing most 
radically. 

" Such being the general requirements which most influ- 
ence the general expression of our school houses, it will be 
found difficult to reconcile therewith features borrowed from 
the late English Gothic and the early English renaissance. 

" Aside from economy in planning, which certainly leads 
to a balanced arrangement of rooms, the key to the external 
expression of a school house is the size and distribution and 
form of windows which experience has shown to be best 
adapted for the needs of a school room. This consideration 
of window treatment alone leads the architect who appreci- 
ates the economic and practical requirements of the problem 
to abandon picturesque treatments in a school house design 
and to adopt those suggested by the brick architecture of 
the Italian renaissance and by the Georgian work of Eng- 
land and this country. Sufficiently varied motives for the 
external expression of our school house plans can be found 
in these styles. 

" * * * The architect to whom the designing of a 
school house is entrusted should accept the limitations 
imposed by the practical conditions of the problem. He 
should not seek to be ' original ' or to gain the semblance of 
a structure, however beautiful in its own time and for its 
own needs, which does not meet the requirements of an 
American school house." 

Mr. Wheelwright concludes that " under ordinary condi- 
tions, satisfactory architectural results may be obtained at an 



24 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [432 

access of cost of not more than 5 per cent above that of the 
most 'practical' construction." 

Public school buildings No. 165 (Plate X), and No. 20 
(Plate XIII) are given as types of large city buildings, not 
because they are considered perfect models of architecture 
and construction for buildings of their class, but because 
they are excellent buildings and have been erected under 
the most trying and extreme conditions in the crowded parts 
of America's largest city. 

These buildings are heated by steam radiation and ven- 
tilated by engine-driven fans located in the basement. 

A mechanical error has been conformed to in having sepa- 
rate engines for the different fans instead of deriving all the 
power from a single unit and distributing it to the fans by 
electric motors. A 50 h. p. engine with direct connected 
dynamo of 40 k. w. capacity and two 15 h. p. motors would 
be more efficient, more easily kept in repair, and more up to 
date than the old method of furnishing an engine to each 
fan. 

It would also have been better to have divided the 
mechanical movement of the air between the plenum and the 
exhaust methods. The vacuum-forming tendency given by 
an exhaust fan is always effective and greatly assists the 
incoming air making its way against friction. And in cases 
when the room becomes too warm and the fresh air is tem- 
porarily closed off, the exhaust fan acts like a fireplace and 
can always be depended upon. The power required in the 
two methods is about the same. 

In these New York schools, the air supply is estimated to 
be 1800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil. 

In planning very large buildings, two distinct types are 
employed, known respectively as the open court type and 
the letter H type. As to which it is better to choose, 
depends on the size, shape, and location of the building lot. 

The New York school, No. 165, is a good example of H 
type, which is for the majority of cases the better for 
crowded localities. In these districts, it is necessary to build 



433] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 25 

close up to the party line ; this plan as seen in the present 
building makes it possible to build a solid blank wall on the 
party line with the windows all facing the open court which 
may be beautified, and the view is unobstructed by unsightly 
shops, smoky chimneys, and tenement houses. 

The external treatment of building No. 165 shows an 
attempt to conform to the Gothic type of architecture. 
While utility has not, in this instance, been wholly sacrificed, 
and making due allowance for differences in taste, the writer 
is of the opinion that the high pitched roof, the pinnacles, 
and the pointed dormers are not the most appropriate form 
of decoration. The architect, Mr. C. B. J. Snyder, justifies 
the space occupied by the roof by using it for a gymnasium 
and for vent flues. 

The building laws of New York require such a great 
thickness of wall in high buildings that much valuable space 
is gained in buildings over four stories in height by using 
the steel skeleton type used in the large office buildings ; 
this makes it possible to reduce the thickness of the first 
story walls from 36 inches to 16 inches. 

The introduction of manual training into the schools of 
the United States has been met in school house building by 
placing it in different parts of the house, from the basement 
to the attic. In building No. 165, the whole fifth floor is 
given over to manual and physical training and a gymnasium. 

As manual training in grammar grades is still in a transi- 
tory and unsettled state, the provisions for it in school house 
building are as various and imperfect as is the knowledge 
concerning its place, amount, and nature in the course of 
study. In high schools, certain requirements and methods 
have become established making more clearly definite the 
functions of the buildings, as is pointed out further on. 

There is a difference of opinion as to the necessity of an 
auditorium in a grammar school. In New York city, a 
demand for an audience room and a regard for economy are 
two conflicting ideas which seem to have met and com- 
promised as shown in building No. 165 in sliding door par- 



26 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [434 

titions between all the rooms on the second floor of the 
central pavilion. An auditorium or general assembly hall 
in a primary and grammar school is of doubtful utility so far 
as the management of the school is concerned. 

The lighting of building No. 165 is generally to be com- 
mended. All the rooms except those in the ends of the 
outside pavilions are lighted on one side only, by three very 
wide mullioned windows occupying nearly the whole inside 
wall space. It may be said of the end windows that they 
are objectionable if the rooms are to be used for ordinary 
class purposes. By using these ends for wardrobes, the 
windows would not interfere with the requirements of 
hygienic lighting and might still be left to furnish a justifi- 
cation for the pretty Gothic window at the top. 

A difference of opinion prevails among the leading archi- 
tects of this country as to the form and position of win- 
dows. Mr. Wheelwright objects to the use of mullions and 
transom bars, while Mr. Snyder in his best New York build- 
ings makes free use of both. The objection to mullions is 
based on the uneven distribution of light which is incident 
to unequal spacing. This, however, depends on the con- 
ditions in each instance. There appears to be no objection 
to mullions as used in the central pavilion of building No. 
165 where the rooms are lighted on one of the shorter sides 
and the windows, whose frames are 1 7 ft. in width and 1 1 ft. 
in height, occupy nearly the whole of the available wall 
space ; but in rooms lighted as they should be on one of the 
longer sides better results can be attained by plain windows 
evenly spaced than by any use of mullions. The use of 
them, then, in school house building should be limited to 
those exceptional cases which require practically the conver- 
sion of one side of a room into a single, unbroken source 
of light. 

The use of transom bars, however, cannot be defended, 
for they are obstructions to light and are certainly not justi- 
fied if their only purpose is conformity to ancient ideals 
which had purposes of their own quite different from those 



435] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2j 

demanded in a school house. The highest art will give a 
pleasing expression to the highest utility. 

In determining- the ideal length for a school room, the two 
main considerations are the distance which an ordinary con- 
versational tone of voice will carry, and the distance at 
which ordinary blackboard writing can be seen. This dis- 
tance may be taken, with liberal variations to meet particu- 
lar cases, to be about 32 feet. 

The width will depend on the height of the windows. If 
the German standard of requiring the width to be not 
greater than twice the clear height be accepted, then the 
width of the rooms in building No. 165 might be 28 ft. 6 in., 
as the height is 14 ft. 4 in. A room 28x32 ft. will comfort- 
ably seat singly 56 pupils. This is as many as any teacher 
should be called upon to manage in one room. 

In determining the size of classes, there is somewhere a 
proper balance between the economic and the pedagogical 
phases of the question. As the child is the all-important 
factor, it would seem that the maximum number of pupils 
which can be admitted to one room without sacrificing their 
health or individuality should be first determined and then 
make the school house conform to the requirements. As 
the limits of safety are not confined within fixed, hard and 
fast lines, the writer believes that the limits of hygienic 
teaching can be found in a room varying between 22 to 28 
feet in width and 30 to 36 feet in length, accommodating 
respectively 40 to 60 pupils according to conditions. 

The mistake in school house building has been in making 
rooms too large instead of too small as is sometimes charged. 
The answer of Superintendent Philbrick of Boston, Mass., 
to this charge when made some years ago against the size of 
the rooms in the English high school of Boston which was 
planned by him is worth repeating: " It has been said that 
the rooms are not large enough. One might as well say 
that a bushel measure is not as largfe as it should be. The 
rooms are as large as they need be for the objects in view 
in planning them." 



28 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [436 

In planning a school house the number, size and position 
of the rooms should first be determined and the architecture 
adapted to the requirements can then be selected. But the 
architect too often first decides upon the outside appearance 
and then makes the interior arrangements to fill the spaces ; 
this frequently results in rooms of various shape and size 
not well adapted to the purposes for which they were 
intended. 

One of the most important matters in large primary and 
grammar schools is the number and location of the ward- 
robes. The provision for these in building No. 165 are not 
satisfactory. For purposes of order and convenience in 
handling large numbers of small children there should be 
one of these cloak rooms provided for each school room. 
In the building under consideration there seems to be no 
provision for these rooms in the central pavilion, and those 
in the outside pavilion are not lighted. This defect could 
have been corrected by placing windows in the blank wall 
on the property line. Such windows, notwithstanding their 
proximity to neighboring walls, would, if ground glass were 
used, serve a purpose in lighting these cloak rooms without 
opening a view to objectionable neighborhoods. 

A provision for an amply lighted cloak room for each 
school room is shown in fig. 1, Plate XII, which the writer 
suggests as an H plan for a large primary and grammar 
school house. In this plan it is assumed that the building 
occupies one-half a block having streets on three sides and 
an alley on the other. In many available sites this condi- 
tion can be secured ; but in cases like that of the New York 
building the position of the corridors and school rooms in 
the outside pavilions could be reversed without organic 
change in the design. In this plan the following features 
are secured : 1. Ample shelter for 2000 to 4000 pupils, 
according to the number of stories; 2. Rooms 24x32 
ft., the proper proportion ; 3. Ventilation by combination 
of plenum and vacuum movements as shown by the num- 
ber and position of flues ; 4. Four large windows in one 



437] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 29 

side provide ample light for the school rooms if the clear 
height is not less than 13 feet; 5. A well-lighted cloak 
room opening into each room and into the corridor, which 
serves ideal convenience in dismissing the pupils. 

This plan does not preclude the use of the space here 
shown from being occupied by school rooms for other pur- 
poses which local conditions might require, such as offices, 
reception rooms, water closets, play rooms, etc. The plan 
is intended to suggest a way to secure the above-named 
features for every school room, and the arrangement would 
conserve equally well the lighting, warming and ventilating 
requirements for whatever use the space might be employed. 

The position of the cloak rooms at the ends of the out- 
side pavilions while unconventional, serves to preserve the 
intent as to side lighting, while it does not preclude any 
outside window arrangement which architectural treatment 
would necessarily require. Fig. 2 illustrates the idea when 
applied to a smaller building. 

With the limited opportunities in the densely populated 
districts of our large cities for exercise in the open air, the 
question of play grounds becomes important. In building 
No. 165, the open courts between the outside pavilions not 
being sufficient, the whole first floor is given over to this 
purpose. This is unnecessarily expensive. The prejudice 
in New York city against any use of the basement except 
for the heating and ventilating apparatus should give way 
before the light of modern methods for the sanitary regula- 
tions of basements. A properly constructed basement with 
half-height top windows and properly supplied with fresh, 
warm air is as wholesome as any room in the building. 

It is especially important in providing for a system of 
ventilation to carry the air from an elevated and pure source 
instead of taking it from back alleys and beneath porches 
and door steps as is too frequently the case. 

The use of the roof for play grounds is a good solution 
of the problem. Public school No. 20, New York city, 
Plate XIII, is a good example of this use of the roof. The 



30 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [438 

air at this height is generally pure and the sunlight is unob- 
structed. By thus utilizing the roof and dispensing with 
the waste space of a high attic under it, this scheme is advis- 
able from an economic as well as from an hygienic standpoint. 

THE HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING 

A study of the high school buildings of this country 
reveals perhaps more than do buildings of any other class 
the progress not only in school architecture but in pedagogi- 
cal methods as well. From the first conception of secon- 
dary education which consisted of adding four more to the 
eight primary and grammar grades, the high schools have 
developed a system of specialized work which is expressed 
in a building planned and equipped to meet the many and 
diverse requirements. 

The first high school building which marked distinctively 
an epoch in school house architecture in this country was 
the Latin and English high school of Boston, Mass., which 
was begun in 1877. This house was planned by Mr. Jno. 
D. Philbrick, then city superintendent of the Boston schools, 
and Mr. Clough, the city architect. The plan was inspired 
chiefly by Mr. Philbrick after a study of the celebrated 
building in Vienna — the Academische Gymnasium — which 
is probably the best school building in the world. 

The building is a pure type of the court plan and covers 
a block of ground 423 feet in length by 220 feet in width. 
The rooms and corridors are arranged in parallelogram form 
around a central court which admits light and provides a 
playground. The lighting for the school rooms is taken 
principally from the street sides. 

This building marks several interesting transitions in 
methods and ideals of education, one of which is shown in 
the large military drill rooms, 30x62 ft., a reflection of the 
militant type of European education. Another is the 
amphitheatre style of "lecture" room for the teaching of 
science instead of the working laboratory method now in 
vogue in the best schools. True, this building contains a 



439] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 3 1 

working laboratory, but the dominant feature in the science 
work of that time is seen in the care and expense lavished 
on the lecture rooms. The building reveals a curious inter- 
mingling of the ordinary graded high school, a military 
academy, and a college of the conventional type. 

But it is not for the purpose of calling attention to its 
faults that this building is here referred to ; in many impor- 
tant particulars it may stand as a model of the best that 
has yet been realized. In the mattter of size, form, loca- 
tion, and lighting of its 48 school rooms it undoubtedly 
stands at the head of American school houses. Other 
houses with more modern characteristics have in these 
important features not preserved the perfect model which 
this building- furnished. These class rooms are of the ideal 
size and shape, 24x32x14 ft., and lighted by four windows, 
9 ft. 6 in. x 4 ft. 6 in., placed on one of longer sides six 
inches from the ceiling and four feet from the floor. They 
will accommodate from 35 to 40 high school pupils seated at 
single desks. 

Another excellent feature of this building is the arrange- 
ment of water closets, which occupy positions in wings from 
the stairways, there being two stories of them for each floor, 
one of the stories being entered at the half-way landings 
between the floors. 

The building is not sufficiently ventilated, there being 
allowed but 800 cubic feet per hour for each pupil, instead 
of 2000 cubic feet which is now considered necessary. There 
also seems to be little or no provision made for the care of 
the pupils' wraps, except some low box-like closets under the 
windows, which proved entirely unsatisfactory. 

The building was intended to be fire-proof, the corridors 
being constructed with iron beams and brick arches plastered 
upon the bricks ; the floors are of black marble ; and the 
staircases built of iron. 

The main idea which dominated the minds of the design- 
ers of this building should not be lost sight of : that the 
real width of any organic part of the house should be the 



32 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [44° 

width of one school room plus the width of the parallel cor- 
ridor. Whether the construction be on the court or the H 
plan, this principle is sound, and should be rigidly adhered 
to in planning a very large school house. 

One of the essential features of a high-school house as it 
differentiates from one built for grammar school purposes is 
the assembly hall, which in America is simpy a large school 
room intended for general purposes of classification, and 
the assembling of the school as a whole for general instruc- 
tion, announcements, opening exercises, musical entertain- 
ments, lectures, etc. It is not an imitation of the German 
Aula, which is largely for general public purposes, and is 
usually richly ornamented with costly architectural treat- 
ment. The American high school assembly hall is strictly 
for utilitarian purposes, and not " to represent the dignity of 
the state." In the Boston school there are two assembly 
rooms, both on the third floor in the central pavilion, each 
capable of seating 800 persons. The purposes of the school 
would have been better served had these halls been united 
into a single room capable of seating the whole school. But 
here again the building represents another transition in high 
school development, that of separating the " classical " and 
mathematical from the English and science branches ; 
indeed, the block is divided into halves, one for the former 
and the other for the latter branches. These two assembly 
rooms were probably intended for the two schools. 

The Cambridge English high school (Plates XIV and XV) 
may be taken to illustrate the next important step in the 
development of secondary education in this country. The 
recognition of natural science to a place in the curriculum 
came slowly, and the pursuit of it by the working laboratory 
method came still more slowly. In this building, ample pro- 
visions have been made for physical and chemical labora- 
tories in two of the large corner rooms on the second and 
third floors. 

These laboratories are well equipped with demonstration 
tables, chairs with writing-arm attachments, working desks 



44 1 ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 33 

plumbed for water and gas, shelves for reagents, and gas 
hoods in the chemical laboratory for the removal of noxious 
gases. 

The building represents what may be called the physical 
science stage in high school development where physics and 
chemistry have secured their rights, but where the biological 
sciences — botany, zoology, and physiology — are still in the 
show cabinet stage, no provision being made for working 
laboratories for them. 

The building is constructed on the H plan with the end 
pavilions short. The corner rooms are well adapted for the 
laboratories and drawing rooms, which need an abundance 
of light and in which light from more than one side is not 
an objection. 

Six of the corner rooms are used for class rooms — a use 
which does not show an ideal adaptation, as they are 40X 
28 ft., which is too large for the purposes of instruction ; it 
is presumed, however, that they are used to accommodate 
pupils who are studying as well as those who are reciting. 

A more recent and a better method of providing for the 
study periods of the pupils is the seating of them in rooms 
or " study halls " planned for that purpose. In modern high 
schools, the pupils change places every period as is the cus- 
tom in colleges. These corner class rooms in the Cambridge 
building are too large for class rooms and smaller than they 
should be for study rooms as a teacher can easily manage 
from 100 to 150 pupils in the study hall ; they serve to rep- 
resent that phase in school house building before the func- 
tion of a room for recitation and for study purposes became 
differentiated. 

The large assembly hall and the drawing room on the 
third floor are well adapted to their uses, and the large room 
in the center pavilion on the second floor called the " senior 
class room " would make an ideal freehand drawing and art 
room. 

The number and position of the wardrobes ("coat 
rooms ") is ideal from the grammar school standpoint ; in 



34 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [442 

high schools, however, of more recent construction, these 
rooms have been left out, and the wraps of the pupils dis- 
posed of in individual lockers placed in large rooms in the 
basement set apart for 'that purpose. This differentiation 
from the grammar school plan, besides being economical, 
presupposes that the age of high school pupils puts them 
beyond the necessity of individual espionage while being 
dismissed. 

But the most distinguishing characteristic of the Cam- 
bridge building is its external appearance, it being the first 
building in which a rational and artistic treatment and utility 
were happily combined. When visiting this building in 1896, 
while making an extended tour of school house inspection, 
the writer was impressed with the simple, strong, artistic 
elegance of its architecture. It is well proportioned, its 
parts well unified without any attempt to obscure the uses 
for which it was intended ; and it is free from fussy, mean- 
ingless ornamentation. It stands for what it is — a beauti- 
ful school house. By referring to Plate XIX it will readily 
be observed that these characteristics are reflected by the 
manual training high school, Kansas City, Mo., started in 
1897. 

The Cambridge building was erected without special 
regard for economy ; it is fire proof, and built of expensive 
material ; the basement is granite, the first story Amherst 
stone, and the second and third of terra-cotta brick ; its cost, 
exclusive of ground, was $230000. 

While this building stands as an architectural unit from a 
high school standpoint, the course of study pursued in it is 
unified with the manual training school, which is situated 
on the opposite side of the beautiful grounds donated by 
Mr. Frederic H. Ringe. 

The new high school building at Springfield, Mass., Plates 
XVI, XVII and XVIII, is given as representing the last 
step in high school development preceding that of the 
manual training high school. It exemplifies not only what 
can be done when economy is not a restraining factor, but 



443] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 35 

also illustrates the prestige at which secondary education 
has arrived in this country. From architects who have 
$300000 at their command, exceptional results are naturally 
expected. In the Springfield building, which cost some- 
what more than this amount, while not above criticism, our 
expectations for excellence have in the main been met. 

The external architectural design is based on the Italian 
renaissance, and while it lacks the harmony of proportion 
given to the Cambridge building, it is strong, dignified and 
chaste. The foundation walls above grade are of pink 
granite ; the walls of the other stories of buff brick, and 
the trimmings are of Bedford limestone. Every sixth 
course of brick of the first story is indented ("six cut 
work") which adds variety and strength to the general 
effect. It is constructed on the central court plan, the rooms 
occupying three of its sides, and a corridor completing the 
rectangle. It is 203 feet by 173 feet, and built on a lot 400 
feet by 270 feet. 

The interior is rich with all the ornamental detail which 
polished marble, plate glass, bronze trimmings and other 
expensive materials can give. Mechanically it is a modern, 
expensive and magnificent structure. 

The heating is by indirect radiation supplemented by 
direct radiation in exposed parts. The furnace and boiler 
are installed in a separate house outside the main building. 
This feature is much to be commended as it insures to all 
the school rooms immunity from coal dust and escaping 
smoke which are incident to a boiler house even with the 
most careful firing. This plant has four horizontal tubular 
boilers each 125 h. p. capacity. The indirect coils are 
located in heating chambers near the four outside corners of 
the building. The fresh air is supplied to these heaters 
through main conduits extending around the parallelogram 
directly under the corridor of the first floor. These con- 
duits are very large, about 80 square feet cross sectional 
area insuring an abundance of fresh air. The air enters 
this conduit through an elevated shaft — a highly commend- 
able sanitary feature — by which a pure source is insured. 



2)6 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [444 

The plenum movement is accomplished by three large 
fans located at convenient distributing points. The four 
exhaust fans, four feet in diameter, are located near the top 
of the four vent shafts. Separate fans are used to ventilate 
the laboratories. 

The heat is regulated by thermostats, another luxury of 
modern engineering. This is in reality more than a luxury 
in a school house ; it is a necessity, for experience has proved 
that the regulation of the heat in school rooms cannot safely 
be entrusted to the teachers, whose minds are not only pre- 
occupied but whose judgment on such matters is not always 
to be relied upon. 

The lighting of this building, while in the main abund- 
ant, is not altogether fortunate in its distribution. The 
assembly hall in the center of the court is lighted from 
above and by light courts at the sides. The school rooms 
on the sides of the building are large — 27 feet by 37 feet 
— well proportioned and well lighted by five windows on 
one of the longer sides ; but the eight corner class rooms on 
the first and second floors have the objection common to 
such rooms used for this purpose — light in the face of the 
teacher. This defect is not necessarily incident to the court 
plan of construction, and has been happily avoided in the 
Newark, N. J., high school, Howard & Cauldwell, archi- 
tects. Although the advantage of light on two or more 
sides for laboratories is not recognized in this school. 

It is the character and arrangement of the third floor of 
the Springfield building which especially commends it as a 
type of modern high school building. Here the recent 
demands of the physical and biological sciences are fully 
met, and the relative importance of laboratory and lecture 
work properly apportioned. The whole provision on this 
floor comprises seven working laboratories, three drawing 
rooms and one lecture room. The latter occupies a central 
position between the chemical and geological laboratories 
on the one hand and two physical laboratories on the other. 
The biological laboratories — three in number — occupy 



445] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 2)7 

positions on the side of the building adjacent to the physical 
laboratories ; and the drawing rooms are located on the 
remaining side. The drawing room on the corner, with light 
on two sides, is adapted to mechanical drawing, while the 
long room, lighted on one side by seven . windows, is admi- 
rably adapted to freehand, perspective and art work. 

A conservatory for plants and flowers is situated on the 
third floor on the inside of the corridor extending into the 
court. Above this is an astronomical observatory with 
revolving copper dome. 

But it is in the location and height of this observatory 
that the enthusiasm of science has somewhat strained archi- 
tectural possibilities. While the dome is a very good one 
and looks well when viewed at some distance, it is practically 
useless for astronomical purposes except for amateur work 
of the crudest kind. Although " it rests upon a steel column 
directly connected with one of the foundation walls," vibra- 
tions are certain to occur on account of its height and its 
connection with the roof of the building. The writer speaks 
from experience with a telescope similarly located in a dome 
above the third floor of the Kansas City central high school. 

In the disposition of the pupils' wraps, the grammar school 
characteristic has been retained. Wardrobes are located in 
a quarter without light between the corridors and the school 
rooms, instead of having individual lockers in large rooms 
in the basement, as now found in many high-school houses 
of recent construction. 

An excellent use has, however, been made of the central 
space in the basement of the Springfield building. A large 
lunch room is here provided with double counters equipped 
for furnishing light refreshments. 

The question of lunches is one of the important and 
unsolved hygienic problems in high school education. This 
problem arises from the relatively short school day in sec- 
ondary schools ; it is too long for one session and too short 
for two. When put into one, the dinner hour is too late ; 
when divided into two, the short cold lunch hastily eaten is 



38 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [446 

equally objectionable and detrimental to the health of the 
pupils. A large, well-appointed cafe in the building, where 
it can be secured and managed economically for the pupils 
is the best solution of the problem. This gives two short 
sessions, with a light warm lunch given at the proper time. 

THE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL 

It has been noticed that the high or secondary school in 
America started simply as additional grades to the eighth 
grammar grade ; and that these grades confined the atten- 
tion of the pupils to books only, differing from the work of 
the lower grades only in the subject-matter found in them. 
We have seen the school house for this work grow from the 
ordinary school room type to that just described. 

No less interesting is the growth of the manual training 
high-school house which is as in the former case a material 
expression of educational progress in this country. 

With the growth of the high school and the multiplying 
of branches of study, came a tendency too scholastic and 
bookish for practical purposes, when science came in as a 
balance. But laboratory science, excellent as it serves its 
purpose, is inadequate. The applications of science to the 
world of industry and art is not made a part of the pupil's 
growth until he can make this application a part of his 
training. 

The first response to this demand for the practical ele- 
ment was, as in the case of the high school, crude. It was 
merely a better sort of apprenticeship — a trade school. 
Later, a little academic work was added — just thrown in for 
"a little book learning." Still later the use of tools was 
generalized, the academic requirements enlarged by the 
introduction of branches of high school grade. The curric- 
ulum was adapted to pupils of high school age. The time 
was divided between tool work, drawing, and book studies, 
and the "manual training high school" became a reality. 

It would be interesting to trace the growth and develop- 
ment of these schools by giving plates from the first one 



447] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 39 

which was built in St. Louis twenty years ago under the 
direction of Calvin M. Woodward, and still a flourishing 
school, to the latest and most improved ; but space forbids. 
The first of these schools were supposed to be for those 
who expected to be mechanics and were for boys only. It 
was not till the establishment of the St. Louis school that 
manual training was considered on an educational basis. 

With the recognition of the educational claims of manual 
training, apart from its practical utility, came the apportion- 
ment of the academic studies and tool work in making out 
the curriculum. In doing this, varying knowledge and con- 
flicting ideas have been crystalized and recorded in the 
school houses. In some cases, one or two shops were added 
to the ordinary high school where the boys could work 
" after school ; " in others built for manual training schools, 
the shops predominated, and the mere mechanic fixed the 
character of the school with too few of the academic 
characteristics. 

Later came the extension of the manual high school to 
girls, and the modification of the training answering to their 
needs along the lines of the feminine industries ; and this 
correlated with the full academic, art and science provisions 
of the ordinary high school. 

Thus have the two types of school — the purely academic 
and the purely mechanical — grown, developed, and con- 
verged into one correlated unit forming the high school, par 
excellence. The term " manual training," which at first had 
its uses in distinguishing two distinct types has become some- 
what misleading in its application tothe school of to-day ; 
but it must still be retained for the want of a better means 
of designating it from those high schools which have not yet 
incorporated manual training into the curriculum. 

The Kansas City manual training high school, Plate XIX, 
is here given as a type of its class, not because it is in all 
respects superior to others or because it is free from defects, 
but rather because it was planned after others had been care- 
fully studied. 



40 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [448 

The public manual training high school building of to-day 
should embody in its construction rooms specialized for a 
four years' course in art, science, academic work, and man- 
ual training for boys and girls ; and owing to the expense of 
maintaining it above that of the ordinary high school, its 
construction should be undertaken with the strictest economy 
consistent with hygienic and architectural requirements. 

The writer believes that more of these requisites have 
been realized in this than in any other school house yet 
built. When finished (the east pavilion completing the 
design as shown is now, December, 1899, nearly completed), 
it will be 190 feet in length and 140 feet greatest width ; it 
is built on a lot 250 feet long by 165 feet wide, and has a 
frontage on three streets. 

The central and right hand (as shown by the cut) pavil- 
ions were built in 1897 at a cost of $100000 ; this includes 
heating, ventilating, plumbing, laboratory, equipment, fur- 
nishings, and manual training equipment for first two years 
of the course, but not the ground. The wing now being 
built will, with its equipment, cost $50000 more, making a 
total of $150000 for the entire plant. The basement walls 
are of limestone blocks rough hewn and " pitch faced." 
The upper stories are of Kansas City buff brick, the first 
story being "six cut" work. The roof is of brown slate. 
The architectural effect is pleasing ; it is plain, straight- 
forward, and free from meritricious ornamentation. Flam- 
boyant trimmings are absent. Something of the harmonious 
effects which have been noted in the Cambridge high school 
have been given to this with less expensive materials. The 
arches which span the piers between the windows of the sec- 
ond and third stories of the central pavilion, while suggested 
by the Romanesque style of architecture, do not sacrifice 
the lighting of the rooms, for the mullioned windows as 
here employed give a larger opening than could be other- 
wise secured. But the transom bars used in these windows 
should have been omitted, for they obstruct light and do not 
improve the appearance. 



449] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 4 1 

The heating is accomplished by indirect, supplemented by 
direct, steam radiation ; the ventilation by two Hope pro- 
pellers, 6 ft. in diameter, one in the fresh air room serving 
as a plenum, the other in the foul air room as exhaust. 

The chief merit of this lies in the central location of the 
plenum containing the indirect steam coils. The arrange- 
ment is shown in the basement plan ; the plenum is the unlet- 
tered room in the center. A change was made in the plan 
which makes the plenum room slightly smaller than repre- 
sented. This room with its heated steam coils and fresh air 
supply are to the buildings what lungs are to an animal, and 
its location in the center insures a balanced circulation. The 
movement of the air is as follows : The plenum fan located 
in the fresh air room receives the supply through vertical 
shafts on either side of the front entrance. The openings 
into these shafts are the large louvre windows shown in the 
perspective, Plate XIX. These windows are on the north 
side of the building far removed from any source of smoke 
and high enough from the ground to insure purity. The 
course of the air after it is forced through the plenum room 
may be followed by referring to the cross section of the 
building, Plate XXII. The section is made through the 
fresh air, plenum, and foul air rooms and shows the position 
of both fans. The air rises through the fresh air flues and 
is delivered into the rooms about 8 ft. from the floor. It is 
drawn out by the exhaust fan located in the foul air room 
through the foul air flues which lead from the wall registers 
near the floor to a sub-basement shown in fig. i. This sub- 
basement is three feet high and extends the entire length of 
the building the full width of the bicycle rooms ; four wings 
extend from this subway so as to communicate with the four 
sections of flues between the rooms. The exhaust fan 
draws the air from this subway, thus connecting the lower 
registers of every room with low pressure. 

It would require a longitudinal section of the building 
through the bicycle rooms to illustrate the movement of the 
air toward the outside pavilions : but this is easily described. 



42 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [450 

A " false " ceiling three feet below the floor over the bicycle 
rooms provides an open free passage for the air as it is 
forced from the plenum room ; this is virtually an exten- 
sion of the plenum room to the openings to every fresh air 
flue in the house without the use of distributing pipes. 

By this means, all the friction which is incident to the 
usual method of pipe distribution is eliminated. This being 
a departure in pneumatic engineering, it deserves some 
attention ; it was a concession on the part of the architect 
and the result of a compromise with the writer who wanted 
to extend this plenum chamber in the same manner beneath 
the floors instead of near the ceiling by the conventional 
method. 

Let it here be noted that the economy in fuel when warm 
air is delivered through the floors and so distributed that it 
may be let out at the ceiling is enormous. It exceeds the 
usual way by a ratio almost equal to that of the mechanical 
system of ventilating over that of the gravital noted on a 
preceding page. 

The economy in warming when the air is properly dis- 
tributed through the floors and let out at the ceiling, as 
compared with the conventional way, has been carefully 
tested by the writer by the use of an experimental model. 
While these experiments are somewhat too technical to suit 
the purposes of this article, a study of the plot, Plate XXIII, 
will not be without interest. 

The figures at the left show the difference in inside and 
outside temperatures ; those at the top, amperes of electric 
current used in heating iron coils as the source of heat ; 
those at the bottom, relative heat units. It will be noticed 
that these are the squares of the amperes above and thus 
show the well-known thermal relation between the current 
and its thermal equivalent. It will be understood that these 
numbers are not real thermal units, but serve to show the 
relative amount of heat at different readings of the ammeter. 

The line AO shows the results when the air was distrib- 
uted under the floor with ventilation above ; BO, when the 



45 I ] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 43 

air was delivered at the side with ventilation below ; CO, 
when the air was delivered near the top and let out at the 
top. Take an example : Suppose the temperature above 
that outside of the room to be 50 degrees, this temperature 
line crosses the resultant line at X, showing that it requires 
2 1-2 amperes of current to maintain this temperature when 
heat is applied below. With the same temperature when 
the heat is applied at the side the line crosses at B, showing 
10 amperes. Whence it is plain that the relative heat 
required in the two cases is shown by the ratio of 6 1-2 to 
100. In plain words, it would require only 6 1-2 per cent 
of the cost by present methods to heat a building if the air 
were properly distributed, delivered through the floors, and 
let out at the top. 

The writer fully realizes that the foregoing brief state- 
ments will be somewhat unsatisfactory to those who are 
unfamiliar with the details of the tests, 1 but he is confident 
that this method of warming and ventilating has reached 
the stage of successful experiment, and will as surely dis- 
place the old way as that the electric motor displaced the 
horse in street car locomotion. 

Returning to the extended plenum chamber under the 
corridor floors, it may be said that it works perfectly, and so 
much of the " theory " has passed into history. 

During the first two years of its use this system, with the 
exception of the register in one room, has required no regu- 
lation of the registers, notwithstanding the absence of ther- 
mostats. The exceptional room is on the first floor just 
opposite the plenum fan ; in this the delivery is excessive 
unless the register is kept partly closed. The exception is 
of so little importance, however, that the placing of a deflec- 
tor in the plenum room has not been found necessary. 

While the ventilation of this building has some of the 
defects common to current practice, the writer believes that 

1 For full explanation and experimental details of these tests, see the writer's 
paper in the Report of the Proceedings of the Mechanical Engineering Section, 
American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Columbus, O., 1899. 



44 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [452 

it is the best ventilated school house in America, and, the 
size of the building considered, the most economical. 

The fans, when running at full speed, 400 revolutions, 
move 60000 cublic feet per minute. This would supply 
2000 pupils each with 1800 feet per hour. The average 
daily attendance during the past year, 1898-9, was about 
900. The fans were run 250 revolutions per minute giving 
each pupil 2500 cubic feet of pure warm air per hour. 

The lighting of this building is nearly ideal. The H 
plan of construction provides light on three sides of all 
rooms used for laboratories, manual training and mechanical 
drawing ; including the lunch rooms and the engine room in 
the basement there are 16 of these. The large windows at 
and above the three main entrances furnish ample light for 
the halls and corridors. The class rooms do not conform to 
the ideal standard recommended in the preceding pages. 
These rooms, while of ideal shape and size, are lighted on 
the shorter instead of the longer side. But considering the 
use of the entire available wall space which has been 
employed for the mullioned windows lighting these rooms, 
the height of the rooms being 14 feet, and the use which is 
made of the rooms, this departure from standard require- 
ments is not serious. It should be remembered that in high 
school academic work there is comparatively little pen-writ- 
ing done, the greater use of the eyes being confined to 
blackboard work. The light in these rooms is ample for all 
purposes for which they are ever used. 

The assembly hall is as light as day itself, as may readily 
be inferred by glancing at the third floor plan. With ceil- 
ing 24 feet high, and light from 18 large mullioned windows 
8 feet by 16 feet with arched windows above these, entering 
from opposite sides, more light is provided than is called for 
by any standard. This assembly hall is 120 feet by 84 feet 
and has a seating capacity of 1600 persons; it serves for 
lectures, concerts, study hall, and commencement exercises. 
It is equipped for stereopticon projection work ; and although 
there is a window area of 2800 square feet, the room is com- 



453] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 45 

pletely darkened in 50 seconds by an automatic electrical 
device which controls the raising and lowering of the dark- 
ening shades and the screen back of the platform. 

It may be noted here that provision for darkening rooms 
for scientific purposes and for illustrated lectures is another 
phase of modern school architecture, and not until recently 
have the mechanical difficulties incident thereto been entirely 
overcome. The mechanism in the Kansas City school con- 
sists of a 1 h. p. Westinghouse motor with worm gear, mag- 
netic clutch, and drum attachment which moves a steel cable 
extending around the room under the windows and beneath 
the floors. 

The physical and biological laboratories provide for teach- 
ing physics, chemistry, botany, and zoology, and all have 
separate teacher's laboratory for research work. The work- 
ing tables in the physical laboratory are each separately 
wired for the individual use of the current by the pupils. 
The brick pier (shown in the plan of the girls' lunch room) 
terminates in the physics demonstration table furnishing a 
vibrationless support for galvanometer experiments. 

The chemical laboratory is furnished with students' work- 
ing desks with solid slate slab tops. Six drawers to each 
desk provide a locker for each pupil in which to keep appa- 
ratus for which he is alone responsible. Three large gas 
hoods located against the walls and in communication with 
the exhaust fan give perfect ventilation and provide a place 
to generate noxious gases. Another point of special con- 
venience in these laboratories is the sliding door 16 feet 
wide which throws them together with the adjoining large 
class rooms. By this arrangement, the teacher may oversee 
a laboratory division while conducting a recitation. 

The tables in the biological laboratories are topped with 
plate glass which has the advantage of smooth, easily-cleaned 
surface for dissections. Wall paper of a neutral tint placed 
under the glass relieves the eyes of the pupils. The main 
corridors on the first and second floors are 19 feet wide and 
serve the double purpose of corridors and exhibition halls 



46 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [454 

where at the closing week an exhibit of the yearly work is 
arranged on long tables. 

The large "geology and natural history room." on the sec- 
ond floor will hereafter be used for a free-hand drawing and 
art room, the north light making it ideal for this purpose. 

The pupils' wraps are provided for in locker rooms in the 
basement. 

The outside pavilions are of the " mill construction " 
which is especially to be commended for shops and labora- 
tories. The inside walls are of pressed brick. The floors 
are supported by large steel I beams running crosswise, car- 
rying large, finished, wooden joists. One entire pavilion is 
used to accommodate the manual training work ; while archi- 
tecturally a unit with the other part of the building, this 
pavilion is set off by an independent wall with "a 4-inch 
cushion of air between to prevent the communication of 
vibrations to the class rooms from running machinery. An 
additional precaution is furnished by the intervening locker 
and wash rooms which serve the boys in preparing their 
toilets after the shop exercise. 

The entire inside finish is of selected yellow pine. The 
building is not fireproof, except the " slow combustion " 
which the mill construction secures to the parts just men- 
tioned. The isolation of the building and a system of night- 
watch signals make fireproof construction unnecessary. 

The numerous class rooms supplementing the laboratories, 
shops, drawing and art rooms provide conveniences for a 
complete high school academic course correlated with labora- 
tory science, manual training and drawing. 

The stairs in this building conform to the standard require- 
ments as to number and height. The double staircases at 
either end of the main corridor and the single one at the 
end of the central hall afford ample and free egress in case 
of fire. The stairs are five feet in width with six-inch risers 
and twelve-inch treads. 

While the injury to the American school girl from stair 
climbing has probably been exaggerated, it is undoubtedly 



455] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 47 

true that girls of delicate organization have suffered much 
from this cause. It seems to be the consensus of opinion of 
all who have considered the subject that the six-inch riser 
and twelve-inch tread makes the easiest stairway. There 
should not be more than fifteen stairs between landings. 

CLOSETS 

The location of closets should be determined by the exist- 
ing facilities for ventilation and drainage. Where there is 
any doubt as to the efficiency of either, closets should be 
placed in outside buildings ; but when a school house has 
the advantage of good sewage and mechanical ventilation, 
the place for pupils' closets is the basement. 

The condition of closets and outhouses which usually 
prevails in districts without sewage deserves the severest 
criticism. It is here that the results of ignorance and care- 
lessness are fully revealed. The privy vault should never 
be tolerated, and the large receptacle surface tanks which 
are usually " cleaned " two or three times a year are little 
better. The following quotation from the report of the 
state board of health of Maine for 1892-3 is good, and 
covers about all which need be said of outhouse closets : 
" All that is needed is a common closet, a supply of dry 
earth, a water-tight receptacle beneath, and a convenient 
way of disposing of its contents at quite frequent intervals. 

" The receptacle should be wholly above the surface of the 
ground, and may consist of a metallic-lined box, a half of a 
kerosene barrel with handles upon it for removal, or, which 
is better, a large galvanized iron pail. 

" The receptacle may be removed through a door in the 
back of the closet or in front of the seat, or, by having the 
seat hinged and made to button backward, it may be removed 
that way. The earth should be common garden or field 
loam and finely pulverized. Road dust does well, but sand 
is not suitable. Coal ashes are good. Whichever of these 
is used should be dry and screened through a sieve with 
about quarter inch meshes. The dry earth may be kept in 



48 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [456 

a box or bin so arranged, where it can be, that it may be filled 
from the outside of the closet, or it is quite convenient to 
have one-half of the seat hinged, and beneath it the small 
compartment to hold the present supply of the earth. In 
this box or bin holding the earth there may be a small tin 
scoop which may be employed in sprinkling in the earth, a 
pint or more each time the closet is used. The main thing 
is to use enough of the earth to completely absorb all liquids, 
and this requirement, of course, precludes the throwing of 
slops into the closet." 

Figure i, Plate XXIV, shows the construction of this 
closet. 

Arrangements could easily be made with gardeners or 
farmers for the daily removal of the contents of these 
receptacles for fertilizing purposes. 

Closets under the roof of the school building should have 
good sewer connection through a heavy cast iron soil pipe 
which should have a vertical extension in a pipe 3 or 4 
inches in diameter through the roof for ventilation ; an effi- 
cient trap situated in a convenient manhole ; an automatic 
flushing tank, and local ventilation for each separate seat. 

It is important that provision be made in school house 
closets against the stopping up of pipes and traps, and the 
neglect incident to hand flushing, hence automatic latrines 
are preferable to single closets. The mechanical conditions 
of a perfect system of closets may be studied by referring 
to the cut, Fig. 2, which shows a longitudinal section of the 
automatic flushing latrine in the Kansas City manual train- 
ing high school. 

It was installed by Lewis & Kitchen of Kansas City. 
The trough is made of cast iron lined with heavy enamel 
and is perfectly smooth and durable. The bottom is so 
constructed that the water stands only in the parts of the 
trough directly under the seat. The trap is the invention 
of J. H. Brady, engineer for the Kansas City board of edu- 
cation ; it is hinged so that it may be raised up allowing all 
accidental lodgements^ free exit ; it is located in the bottom 



45/] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 49 

of a dry vault and may be reached with a hook in the hands 
of the janitor or other person. There is no possibility of 
needing the services of a plumber should the trap become 
clogged. 

The upper drawing in the cut shows the local ventilation 
of each separate closet. The air enters just below the 
front part of the seat and passes out at the back into the 
vent duct which is in direct communication with the exhaust 
fan. The ventilation in this method of transverse move- 
ment of the air is better than it is possible to secure in 
systems which ventilate the trough longitudinally, for even 
when the lids of the seats are left down the air passing 
under them from above will supply the current and prevent 
the requisite flow from the end of the trough remote from 
the vent. 

The boys' urinals are of the stall partition type with 
gutter trough ventilated at the bottom. The back, ends 
and partitions are made of hammered glass, the t.^ead and 
trough being of slate. Glass is preferable above all other 
material for this purpose as it is easily cleaned and free from 
any tendency to disintegration. 

NORMAL SCHOOL AND COLLEGE BUILDINGS 

The essentials of a normal school house are not materially 
different from those of a first class high school. Class 
rooms of ordinary typical construction serve the purpose of 
"professional" work with training classes, and with modern 
views now taking root respecting the amount of academic, 
science, and manual training needed in normal school 
courses, these functions have already been considered in 
describing the manual training high school. The " Teachers' - 
college " in New York city is an interesting building and 
might serve equally well the purposes of a modern manual 
training high school. In universities, the work is specialized 
in separate buildings which simplifies the task of the archi- 
tect. The principles of sanitation and architectural treat- 
ment indicated in the buildings already referred to apply so 



50 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [45$ 

well to special buildings that separate consideration is not 
considered essential to this short monograph. 

INFLUENCE OF LEGISLATION ON SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 

The state of New York in 1887 passed a law authorizing 
and directing the state superintendent of public instruction 
to procure architects' plans and specifications for school 
buildings ranging in cost from $600 to $10000. This was 
a very important step and it resulted as was intended in 
enlisting the best architectural talent in the country. Liberal 
prizes for the most meritorious designs were offered, and as 
a result some very creditable designs were secured. The 
suggestions which these designs furnished have been acted 
upon in many districts not only in New York but in several 
other states. Following is the list of the names and resi- 
dences of the architects who presented creditable designs : 

Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd, Lansing, Mich. 

John R. Church, Rochester, N. Y. 

John Cox, Jr., New York city. 

Clarence True, Yonkers, N. Y. 

C. Powell Karr, Rochester, N. Y. 

J. C. A. Heriot and Corliss McKinney, Albany, N. Y. 

J. Frank Lyman, Yonkers, N. Y. 

Warren R. Briggs, Bridgeport, Conn. 

Fenimore C. Bate, Cleveland, Ohio. 

Proudfoot & Bird, Wichita, Kans. 

In 1882, the state superintendent of Wisconsin invited the 
competition of architects in furnishing designs at small cost. 
Following are the names and addresses of architects who 
made valuable contributions : 

J. Bruess, Milwaukee, Wise. 

W. G. Kirchaffer, Elkhorn, Wise. 

Edbrooke & Burnham, Chicago, 111. 

H. C. Koch & Co., Milwaukee, Wise. 

G. Stanley Mansfield, Freeport, 111. 

F. S. Allen, Joliet, 111. 

F. W. Hollister, Saginaw, Mich. 

In 1895, the state legislature passed a law which says 



459] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 5 1 

that : — " Hereafter no school house shall be constructed in 
the city of New York without an open-air playground 
attached to or used in connection with the same." This law 
has done much toward improving the hygienic conditions in 
New York, and its influence has been felt in other cities. 

The state laws of Massachusetts provide for the placing of 
fire escapes in all buildings more than two stories in height; 
also " that every school house shall be kept in a cleanly state 
and free from effluvia arising from any drain, privy, or other 
nuisance, and shall be provided with a sufficient number of 
proper water and earth closets." It further provides that 
" every school house shall be ventilated in such a proper 
manner that the air shall not become so exhausted as to be 
injurious to the health of the persons present therein." 

The state laws of Kentucky provide that each school 
house shall have a floor space of not less than ten square 
feet to each pupil in the district ; shall be at least ten feet 
between floor and ceiling ; shall have at least four windows ; 
one or more fireplaces with chimneys made of brick or stone." 
It also provides that each school house shall provide for each 
child "a seat with back the height of the seat and its back 
to suit the age of the child — no desk or bench to be made 
to accommodate more than two children." 

The statutes of Vermont (1896) provide that : " The state 
board of health shall within reasonable time and as often as it 
thinks necessary issue a circular letter to the local boards of 
health giving the best information as to lighting, heating, 
ventilating, and other sanitary arrangements according to 
regulations by the state board of health." 

The laws of Connecticut provide that " every school house 
shall be ventilated in such manner that the air shall not be 
injurious to the health of the persons present therein." 

In many of the states the only legislation is that doors in 
school houses shall open outward. This is a precautionary 
provision against accidents in fires, and seems to be more 
generally recognized by state legislatures than any other 
single necessity. 



52 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [460 

In many other states there has been no legislation 
whatever. 

In view of the large benefits which have already been real- 
ized from the little legislation that has been made in a few 
states, it is to be hoped that this important means of enlight- 
enment will become more general in the United States. 

WORK OF SCHOOL SUPERVISORS AND ARCHITECTS 

Next to the good which has been accomplished by state 
legislation comes that which has been done by state superin- 
tendents who, realizing the importance of school architec- 
ture, hygiene, and sanitation, have from time to time embod- 
ied in their reports valuable information as to the needs of 
the schools and suggestions as to how to supply them. 

In Wisconsin, State Superintendent W. C. Whitford in 
1882 issued a valuable circular on " Plans and specifications 
of school houses " for the country districts, villages, and 
smaller cities of his state. In 1892 Supt. Oliver E. Wells 
issued a valuable pamphlet containing suggestions and plans 
for the ventilation and furnishing of school houses. 

In Michigan, State Supt. Henry R. Pattengill in his 
report for 1894 gave some valuable information on " School 
grounds, school house architecture, and outbuildings." Also 
Supt. John E. Hammond in his report for 1897 gives valu- 
able information. 

The state board of Connecticut issue from time to time 
valuable school documents, among which No. 13 is a valu- 
able scientific monograph on " School house warming and 
ventilating" by S. H. Woodbridge. Documents Nos. 12 and 
15 contain suggestions on ventilation, and show a large col- 
lection of plans for school houses. 

For the state of New York, Supt. Chas. R. Skinner has 
issued several reports of great value, among which is a large 
bound volume on " Recent school architecture," and contains 
a large number of plates showing the plans and perspectives 
of many of the best school houses in the state. 

State Supt. Nathan C. Schaefer of the state of Pennsyl- 



461] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 53 

vania has given in several of his reports many good sugges- 
tions, and has been unsparing in his criticisms on existing 
conditions in country schools, as a means of stimulating 
effort toward the improvement of school buildings in his 
state. 

In Missouri, Supt. Jno. R. Kirk has done some excellent 
work in the improvement of country schools and in his 
reports of 1896 and 1897 he gives apian for a model country 
school house which has been adopted by many of the country 
districts in the states. This plan possesses the sanitary 
features described in the other one-room building already 
described. 

Of the architects who have not hereinbefore been men- 
tioned and who have done excellent work in school house 
building may be named : Robert S. Roeschlaub, Denver, 
Colo.; E. H. Mead, Lansing, Michigan, whose "three-room 
building " shown in the Michigan state report for 1898 is 
especially to be commended ; Arthur Bohm, Indianapolis, 
Ind.; Hudson & Wachter, architects, Toledo, Ohio; How- 
ard & Camdwell, Newark, N. J.; E. A. Joselyn, New York 
city. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SCHOOL HOUSE ARCHITECTURE AND 

SANITATION 

Alcott, William A. Essay on the construction of school houses. 

pp. 66. Hilliard : Boston, 1832. 
Barnard, Henry. School architecture, or contributions to the 

improvement of school houses in the United States. Sixth 

edition, pp.464. Norton: New York, 1854. 
Bicknell, A. J. School house and architecture. Trubner : London, 

1877. 
Chadwick, E. Sanitary principles of school construction. Lon- 
don, 1877. 
Chase, C. T. Manual on school houses and cottages for the 

people of the south, pp. 83. Wash. 1868. 
Clark, Theodore M. Rural school architecture, pp. 106. Bureau 

of education. Wash. 1880. 
Construction and maintenance of school infirmaries. Churchilh 

London, 1! 



54 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [462 

Designs for school houses accepted by the department of public 
instruction of the state of New York. pp. 20, with 19 com- 
petitive plans. Albany, 1895. 

Designs for school houses accepted by the department of public 
instruction of the state of New York. pp. 20, forty pages of 
plans. Albany, 1889. 

Dickson system of school house construction. 2000 feet of air 
per hour for each pupil without mechanical power. School 
House Construction Company, 215, 217, 219 South Adams street, 
Peoria, 111. pp. 35. Peoria, 111., 1894. 

Dukes, Clement. School construction. Lawrence : Rugby, Eng. 

Dunham, C. A. The model school house, pp. 35. Burlington, 
Iowa, 1894. 

Eveleth, Samuel F. School house architecture. Illustrated in 17 
designs in various styles, pp. 14, 67 plans. Woodward : N. Y. 
1870. 

Freese, Jacob R. Report on school house and means of promot- 
ing popular education, pp. 13. Wash. 1868. 

Gardner, E. C. Town and country school buildings. Kellog: N. 
Y. 1889, contains designs, plans and descriptions. 

Gove, Aaron. Public school house. Education 17 (March, 1897) 
407-411. 

Hints and suggestions on school architecture and hygiene, 
with plans and illustrations. By J. George Hodgins. pp. 135. 
Toronto, 1886. 

Hodgins, J. George. The school house, its architecture, external 
and internal arrangements, with elevations and plans for public 
and high school buildings, pp. 271. Copp : Toronto, 1876. 

Johonnot, James. School houses, with architects' designs by S. 
E. Hewes. Schermerhorn: N. Y. 1872. 

Public school buildings in the District of Columbia, pp. 48, 
House of representatives miscellaneous documents No. 35, 47th 
Congress, 1st session. Washington. 

Report of the general agent (Massachusetts board of education) 
on the condition of the school houses and giving plans and 
descriptions of school houses suitable for country towns and 
villlages. pp. 64. Boston, 1873. 

Saeltzer, Alexander. Treatise on accoustics in connection with 
ventilation; and an account of the modern and ancient methods 
of heating and ventilation. New York, 1872, 12. 



463] SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE 55 

School houses and public buildings. How they may be safely 
constructed and properly heated and ventilated. Drawings on 
exhibition at World's Columbian exhibition, pp.4, 1893 — pp. 33 
with plates. (Commonwealth of Massachusetts.) 

Turnbull, G. B, New high school building at Colorado Springs. 
School report, 1 (Dec. 1894): 682. 

Walker, C. H. Suggestions on the architecture of school houses, 
Atlantic, 74 (Dec. 1894): 825. 

Plans for heating and ventilating school houses. In state of 
Maine board of health report, 1891. 315-386. 

School architecture and equipment {buildings and grounds) 

Robins, E. C. Technical schools and college buildings, pp. 244. 
Whittaker: London, 1887. 

Robins, E. R. School architecture : planning, designing, build- 
ing. pp.440. Murray: London, 1877. 

Wade, Rufus R. School houses and public buildings : How they 
may be safely constructed and properly heated and ventilated, 
pp. 35 — 34 plates of plans, designs, etc. Boston, 1893. 

Wheelwright, Edmund M. Series of 17 articles in the " Brick- 
builder," Boston, on " The American school house." 

Ventilation and sanitation 

Briggs, Robert C. Steam heating and exposition of the Ameri- 
can practice of warming buildings by steam. Pp. 122. Van 
Nostrand: New York, 1888. 

Bryant, Walter, and Herman, Leopold. An exposition on heat- 
ing and ventilating the school houses of Boston in 1846 and 
1847. pp. 24. Bryant: Boston, 1848. 

Colyer, Frederick. Public institutions : their engineering, sani- 
tary and other appliances, pp. 219. Spon : London, 1889. 

Griscom, John H. The uses and abuses of air. pp. 252. N. Y., 
1850. 

Jacob, E. H. Notes on ventilation and warming of houses,' 
churches, schools and other buildings, pp.124. Young: N. Y., 
1882. 

Leeds, Lewis W. A treatise on ventilation, pp. 226. N. Y., 
1882. 

Lupton, N. T. On heating and ventilation, with special reference 
to the school buildings of Nashville. (Nashville, 1878.) 



^t^#! 



56 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE AND HYGIENE [464 

Marble, Albert P. Sanitary conditions for school houses, pp. 168. 

Bureau of education: Washington, 1891. 
Moore, Joseph A. Ventilation of school buildings in Massachu- 
setts, pp. 15. Chicago, 1893. 
Morrison, G. B. Ventilation and warming of school buildings. 

pp. 22-173. Appleton: N. Y., 1887. 
Morrison, G. B. Some thermal determinations in the heating of 

buildings. Proceedings of " American Association for the 

Advancement of Science." At Columbus, 1899 
Nichols, W. R. Sanitary conditions of school houses. (Boston, 

1880.) 
Quimby, H. M., and others. Ventilation of school houses in 

Worcester, pp. 24. Worcester, 1889. 
Ross, G. On the ventilation of schools, hospitals, law courts and 

other public buildings. Collingrade : London, 1874. 
Young, A. G. School hygiene and school houses. ■ pp. 399. 

Augusta, 1892. 

This is the seventh annual report of the state board of Maine, and is the 
ablest discussion of school hygiene that has yet appeared from a board of 
health. 

Billings, J. S. The information necessary to determine the merits 
of the heating and ventilation of a school building. Proceedings 
National educational association, 1882. pp. 11-19. 

Hubbard, T. Principles of warming and ventilation as applied to 
our public schools. (In. pro. san. con. O., 1887. p. 54.) 

Walker, William A. Report to N. Y. county board of education 
on the proper size, construction and means of ventilating school 
houses, and the arrangement of playgrounds. Docs, of N. Y. 
city board of education. 1842-1850, pp. 5-12. (1846.) 

Woodbridge, S. H. Connecticut school document, No. 13, on 
" School house warming and ventilation." 



PLA TE I 




ONE ROOM COUNTRY SCHOOL HOUSE 
Wm. P. Appleyard and E. A. Bowd, Architects, Lansing, Mich. 




Floor Plan 



Tm. 

Basement Plan 



PLATE II 







•*mfate,,^ 



MODEL ONE ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 

C. Powell Karr, Architect, A'ew York 



*P-m,&'''" 




Swu i ' i i i i T " 

Floor Plan 



PLATE III 




A TWO ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
Warren R. Briggs, Architect, Bridgeport, Conn. 



tyRLS' YARD. 




Floor Plan 



• ■ « 

Basement Plan 



PLA TE IV 



BOYS' YARD. 



IRLS* YARD. 




PLAN SUGGESTED FOR AN INEXPENSIVE TWO ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 



PLATE V 




A THREE ROOM SCHOOL HOUSE 
Warren R. Briggs, Architect, Bridgeport, Conn 




Floor Plan 



Basement Plan 



PLATE VI 




FIFTH WARD SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL. 
F. S. Allen, Architect, Joliet, Ills. 




©cjsu l i ■ J 1 — J 



First Floor 



Second Floor 



PLATE VII 




Scale mmm 



10 it 10 as 



Feet. 



FIFTH WARD SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL.— Basement Plan 



PLATE VIII 



Fig. i 




Fir. 2 




BASEMENT AND FIRST FLOOR PLANS OF AN EIGHT ROOM 
PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL HOUSE 

William Atkinson, Architect 



PLA TE IX 



Fie. i 




Fig. s 




SECOND FLOOR PLAN AND SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN EIGHT ROOM 
PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL HOUSE 

William Atkinson, Architect 



PLA IE X 




PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDING NO. 165, NEW YORK CITY 
C. B.J. Snyder, Architect, New York 




Basement Plan 



FLA TE XI 






lllf.IIH wmB ~ mmm 



P 



r 



3_ i^f K^-JL J 




-ji- 



B 



^ 



-i 



-V^-I 




Second Floor Plan 




First Floor Plan 
PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDING NO. /6s, NEW YORK CITY 



PLA TE XII 



Fig. i 




PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A LARGE PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 



Fiz. 2 




SCH.S.E HHP S— if '1—5 Ten* 

PLAN SUGGESTED FOR A SMALL PRIMARY AND GRAMMAR SCHOOL 






PLA TE XIII 



Fig. i 




I I * Hi- 1 1 



f. 



PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 20, NEW YORK CITY 
C. B.J. Snyder, Architect 



Fig. 




Roof Playground 



PLATE XIV 




CAMBRIDGE (MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL 
Chamberlin df Austin, Architects 




FIRST FLOOR P1_AJ< 



PLATE XV 




SECOND FLOOR PLAN 




THIRD FLOOR PLAN 



CAMBRIDGE (MASS.) ENGLISH HIGH SCHOOL 
Chamberlin & Austin, Architects 



PLATE XVI 





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PLATE XVII 



rt — I t h 




First Floor 




Basement 



PLATE XVIII 









Second Floor 



PLATE XIX 




PLATE XX 





MANUAL TRALNING HLGH SCHOOL, LCANSAS CLTY 






PLA TE XXI 





MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL, KANSAS CITY 



PLATE XXII 




CROSS SECTIONAL VIEW 



PLATE XXIII 



Dm*. fR 

Huj. 1234 9 6783 


10 Amperes 


90 














































86 
































/ 






















/ 


























/ 
























x/ 
















'B 


4Q 












































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G 
























20 
















































10 














































o 


























1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 


1< 


)0 Units. 


R Heat distributed under floor, ventilation above. 




S HeHT DELIVERED ON SIDE, VENTILATION BELOW., 




G Heat delivered on side , ventilation above. 





PLATE XXIV 



Fig. i 




PLAN FOR OUT DOOR CLOSET 



Fig. 2 




LB D '04 



